Saturday, 21 January 2012

Antimicrobial and Their Application in Foods

Antimicrobials will undoubtedly continue to be needed to provide the food supply that will be demanded in the future. The global economy in which we live will result will be demanded in the future. The global economy in which we live will result in foods being transported throughout the world. If foods are arriving in the condition expected, preservatives will be needed. Many chemical compound, either present naturally or formed during processing or legally added as ingredients, are capable of killing microorganisms or controlling their growth in foods. They are designated as antimicrobial inhibitors. A preservative is defined as any substance, which is capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting the growth of microorganism, of any deterioration of food due to microorganism or of masking the evidence of any such deterioration. Antimicrobial compound add to products during manufacturing process to reduce bacterial or fungal growth.

According to PFA Act, (1951)

A substance which when added to food is a capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other decomposition of food.

Antimicrobial food additives are

Ø An efficient

Ø Cost effective

Ø Only effective way to control fungal growth in foods.

Occurrence

Ø Naturally occurring in certain foods

Ø Added to foods during processing.

Classified according to quantity used for preservation of the foods.

Class I - More than 0.5 %

Ø Common salt

Ø Sugar

Ø Dextrose

Ø Glucose syrup

Ø Wood smoke

Ø Spices

Ø Vinegar or acetic acid

Ø Honey

Class II : Less than 0.5%

§ Benzoic acid including its salts

§ Sulphurous acid including its salts

§ Nitrates or nitrities of sodium or potassium

§ Sorbic acid including its sodium, potassium andlactic acid and calcium, phosphate

§ Nisin

§ Sodium and calcium propionate

The ideal antimicrobial preservative is :

Ø Have a wide range of antimicrobial activity.

Ø Nontoxic to human beings or animals.

Ø Economical.

Ø No effect on the flavour, taste, or aroma of the original food.

Ø Not encourage the development of resistant strains

Ø Kill rather than inhibit microorganism.

Mechanism of microbial inhibitors :

Ø By interfering with the genetic mechanism of cell division or interference with cell membrane permeability.

Ø Interference with the enzyme systems of the microbe by competing with the substrate for place on the active enzyme surface.

Ø By inhibition of biosynthesis of vitamins

Ø By the formation of complexes with heavy metal ions.

Benzoic Acid

Ø Also called phenylformic acid or benzenecarboxylic acid

Ø Occur as colourless or white needless and its salt highly soluble in water

Ø Occurs in cranberries, prunes, plumes, cinnamon, ripe clove and also in apples, strawberries

Mechanism :

Undissociated molecules responsible for antimicrobial activity as it taken up by cells.

Interfering with the permeability of the microbial cell membrane.

General Effectiveness :

Most active against yeasts, bacteria, less active against molds

Effective pH : 2.5 to 4.5

Metabolism : Conjugated with glycine to produce hippuric acid which is excreted

Application : Carbonated, non carbonated beverages, purees, concentrate, Jams, Jellies, preserves, Pie filling, Salad dressings, Pickles, Olives, Relishes.

Parabens

Ø First described by Sabalitschka in 1924

Ø Alkyl esters of p-Hydroxybenzoic acid

Ø Stable in air and resistant to cold and heat

Ø Solubility increases from methyl to heptyl in ethanol

Ø More active against mold and yeasts than bacteria

Ø Effective pH- Below 7.0 the parabens are weakly effective

Application -

Carbonated beverages and other soft drinks - a ratio of 2 methy to 1 propyl used

Beer - 12 ppm of n heptyl ester of p hydroxybezoic acid

Baked Goods – Used in fruit product, flavour extracts, pickles, olives, artificially sweetened James, jellies and preserve.

Acetic Acid and Acetates

General Effectiveness : Most effective against yeasts and bacteria and less extent against molds. Diacetate effective against rope and mold in bread.

Effective pH : From 3.5 to 5.5

Application :

Meals : Pickled sausages and pigs feet. Vinegar packed sausages required minimum 3.6% acetic acid.

Bakery Products : High concentration required. However, Sodium diacetate used in small concentration in bread and rolls. Traditional concentration 0.4 part to 100 part of flour.

Acid tasting Products : Used in catsup, mayonnaise, pickles, salad dressing.

Propionic Acid and Propionates

History : Antimicrobial properties were noted in 1913.

Physical Property : It is corrosive acid with strong odour.

Effectiveness : More effective against moulds but not effective against yeasts and bacteria.

Effective pH : 5.0 or 6.0

Mechanism : Accumulates in cells

Inhibities the enzyme of metabolism

Competing with Alanine and other amino acids

Application :

Cheese : 8% Propionic Acid solution used in cheddar cheese

Butter : Propionate treated parchment wrappers provide protection

Bakery Products : Increase mold free life of bread by 8 days. Prevent rope formation in bread s even at pH level 6.0. Sodium salt used in cake and unleavened goods, and calcium salt in bread.

Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites

Historical records indicates that burning of sulfur was used by ancient, Egyptians and Romans in connection with their wine making

Physical Property : A colourless, non flammable gas has a suffocating odour and effect.

Effective pH : As the pH decrease, the proportion of H₂SO₃ increase and the bisulfite (HSO₃^-) ion concentration decrease .

Action : A broad spectrum antimicrobial agents, inhibiting yeasts, moulds, and bacteria

Mechanism of microbial inhibition by Sulphur Dioxide :

1. Inhibiting carbohydrate metabolism

2. Reduction of bisulphate bond (S-S) in enzyme proteins.

3. Inhibition of respiratory mechanism by halting the reaction involving nicotinamide dianucleotide.

Application - In dehydrated fruits, and vegetables, fruit juices, syrups, concentrates, purees and in wine making industry.

Fruit juices, syrups, Concentrates, Purees- 350-600 ppm

Wines- During fermentation 50-100 ppm required

During bulk storage 50-75 ppm required.

Fruit and vegetables for dehydration

Fruits exposed to SO₂ at 43^oC to 49^o C

Vegetable dipped in solution of neutral Sulfites and Bisulfites

Apricot, peaches – 2000 ppm

Pears- 1000 ppm

Raisins 1500 ppm

Apples - 800 ppm

Carrot and potatoes 200 to 250 ppm

Meat and fishes- Help in eliminating black spot formation in shrimp.

Nitrates

Ø Nitrite salt soluble in water but not in ethanol

Ø Add directly or lipuid ingredient or produced by the action of nitrate reducing bacteria on a source of nitrate in the food

Ø Effective pH- 5.0-5.5

Ø 150-200 ppm of nitrate inhibit clostridia in canned comminuted and cured meat.

Hexamine

Ø Acts as a preservative by slow breakdown to formaldehyde.

Ø Used in canned fish and many other popular semi preserved specialties in Scandinavian countries and in the continent.

Dehydroacetic Acid

Ø Insoluble in water, but soluble in the sodium salt.

Ø Effective at all pH values and application is many perishable foods.

Ø Effective at low pH concentration.

Ø Used to control ripening in U.S.A.

Carbon Dioxide

Gas at ambient temperature and solidifies at –78.5 C^o.

Effective - Effective against mould, and gram negative psychotropic bacteria

Mechanism : By exclusion of oxygen

Acidification of the cell interior

Interference with cellular enzyme

Used : Evolved by meat products in gas permeable films.

In MAP for beef, pork, poultry , and other food product.

Hydrogen Peroxide

History : H2O2 used as first antimicrobials preservative by French chemist L. J. Thenard in 1818

Mechanism : > Antimicrobial effect is due to its oxidative properties.
> Bactericidal and sporicidal

Application : Increase keeping quality of milk, cheese milk, cultured buttermilk, sour cream, egg and fish products.

Fatty Acid Ester

Ø Certain fatty acid esters have antimicrobial activity in food.

Ø Most effective is Glyceryl Monolaurate (monolaurin).

Ø Effective against gram positive bacteria, molds, and yeasts.

Ø Less effective against Gram negative.

Ø Efficiency increase in presence of EDTA and inhibit Gram negative bacteria.

Glucose Oxidase

§ Produce hydrogen peroxide by catalyzing the oxidation of glucose to Gluconic Acid.

§ Present in honey responsible for production for H₂O₂ as an inhibitory agents.

§ Inhibit bacteria include acinetobacter, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella etc.

Lactoperoxidase System

Ø Molecular weight – 7,83,000 Daltion.

Ø Glycoprotein with one heme group and 9.9-10.2% carbohydrates.

Ø Present in raw milk, colostrums, saliva and other biological secretion.

Ø Form antimicrobial compound reacting with Pseudohalogen Thiocyanate and Hydrogen Peroxide.

Ø Disrupts cell function.

Ø Damage the sugar and amino acid transport system.

Ø Inhibits viruses, gram positive and gram negative bacteria, fungi.

Limitation :

Ø Adhere to surfaces such as glass.

Ø Inactivated by reducing compound and enzyme such as Horseradish Peroxidase.

Ø Enzymes competing for H₂O₂ can reduce the inhibitory activity of LPS.

Ø Inhibited by Suofhydryl containing compound (Cysteine) and by skim milk that received serve heat treatment.

Ovotransferrin

Ø Albumen constituent of egg white

Ø Have two iron binding sites each bound by anion

Ø Effective ph - 9.5

Ø Mechanism : functions by sequestering available ferric ion

Avidin

Chemical Nature : Water soluble Glycoprotein

Source : Egg albumin

Structure : Made up of four identical Polypetides subunits

Mechanism : > Bacteriostatic agent

> Binds biotin

Application : Pharmaceuticals

Conalbumin

Source : About 10-12% of the total egg white solids.

Mechanism :

Binding of iron
Retard the growth of microorganism
Extend the lag phase of growth
Decrease the rate of multiplication

Property : Sensitive to heat and 80% of the activity is lost with heating to 70-79^o C for 3 min.

Effectiveness : Gram positive are more effective than gram negative bacteria.

Indirect Antimicrobial

Compounds that are added to foods for purposes other than their antimicrobial effects.

Vanillic Acid : Vanillic Acid and its ester used in fruits, bread and cheese spreads.

Boric Acid

Ø Antimold

Ø Used in treating citrus products which are to be shipped as fresh.

Ø Application involve treating with 8% solution before Waxing.

Borax (Sodium Tetraborate) :

Used to wash vegetables, whole fruits such as oranges.

Phosphoric Acid :

Used in some soft drinks e.g. Cola.

Sugar

Mechanism : Make water unavailable to organisms and to their osmotic effect.

Application :

Sweetened condensed milk, fruit in syrups.
Requires about six times more Sucrose than NaCl.
Pies, Cakes is stable due to high concentrations of sugar.

Sodium Chloride

Mechanism :

Reduce water activity and create unfavorable condition for microbial growth.
Causes high osmotic pressure and hence plasmolysis of cells.
Dehydrate foods by drawing out moisture.
Ionizes to yield the chlorine ion.
Reduce the solubility of oxygen in the moisture.
Sanitizes the cell against carbon dioxide.
Interferes with the action of proteolytic enzymes.
Relatively low concentration stimulates microbial growth whereas high concentration inhibits growth.
Inhibit pathogenic bacteria, toxic producing fungi.

Flavouring Agents

> More antifungal than antibacterial.

> Non lactic, gram positive bacteria are most sensitive.

> Diacetyl is most effective flavouring agents.

Propylene Glycol

Ø Also called 1,2 propanediol.

Ø Prepared by propylene with chlorinated water to form the Chlorohydrin

Mechanism :

Reduce water activity.
Alters the permeability of the cell membrane.

Spices

Ø Whole spices are more effective than spice extracts.

Ø The antimicrobial activity of spices is due to presence of essential oils.

Ø Gram positive organism more sensitive than gram negative organism.

Ø Cinnamon, clove, and mustard are strong inhibitors while black pepper, red pepper and ginger are weak inhibitors.

Ø Onions contains two Phenolic Compound : Protocatechuric Acid and Catechol.

Ø Inhibition of microbial spoilage in mayonnaise based delicatessen salads with onion extract was demonstrated.

Ethanol

Ø A colourless liquid, miscible in water and have boiling point of 78^o C.

Ø Bactericidal but not sporicidial.

Ø Denature protein in the cytoplasm at high concentration.

Ø Reduce water activity at low concentration.

Ø Used in sweet wines.

Ø Approved for use as a direct antimicrobial in pizza crust not exceed 2% by product weight.

Chitosan

Ø A polycationic polymer obtained by alkaline hydrolysis of chitin from the shells of Crustaceae.

Ø Destabilize the cell wall and cell membrane functions.

Ø Effective against bacteria, yeasts and molds.

Ethyl Formate

Ø A flammable liquid (C₃H₆O₂, -74)

Ø Soluble in water about 10 parts.

Ø Decompose into alcohol and free formic acid.

Ø A yeast and mould inhibitor in nuts, dried fruits and cereals.

Ø Permissible levels is 15 to 200 ppm.

Methyl Formide

Ø Also known as Bromomethane.

Ø Colourless gas (CH₃Br, m.w. 94.95).

Ø Free soluble in ethanol.

Ø Fumigant and fungistat for dates.

Ø Permissible level is 100 ppm.

Chlorine Dioxide

Ø Has the odour of chlorine.

Ø Unstable in light.

Ø Solubility in water is 3 g/l.

Ø Hydrolysis to Chlorous and Chloric Acid.

Ø Less than 1 ppm apply to decontaminate meat carcasses.

Ø Sodium and Potassium Nitrite used in curing of meat alongwith Sodium Erythorbate or Sodium Ascorbate.

Ethylene Diaminetetracetate

§ Have no much antimicrobial effect.

§ Destabilize the barrier functions of the outer membrane of the Gram negative bacteria and also of Gram positive bacteria.

§ Enhance the antibacterial action of membrane acting chemicals like antioxidants, bacteriocins.

§ Inhibit germination of C. Botulinin’s spore.

§ Limitation : Divalent cations reduce the effectiveness of EDTA.

Bipehenyl

Ø Used to control the decay of citrus fruit by Penicillia for long distance shipment

Ø Generally impregnated into fruit wraps or sheets between fruit layer.

Benomyl

Ø Applied uniformly over the entire surface of fruits

Ø Applied at concentration of 0.5 to 1.0 g/l .

Medium Chain Fatty Acid

Ø Medium chain fatty acids containing 12-18 carbons atoms are most effective.

Ø Primarily bacteriostatic rather than bacteriocidal.

Ø Lauric, Myristic and Palmitic effective against bacteria.

Ø Capric and Lauric Acid effective against yeasts.

Ø Inhibitory activity increase with the increase in double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids.

Ø Undissociated form responsible for antimicrobial activity.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are secondary metabolite produced by microorganism than inhibit or kill a wide spectrum of other microorganism.

Wood Smoking

Ø Smoke generated by burning hardwood such as oak, walnut etc.

Ø May be bacteriostatic or bactericidial and slight antifungal.

Ø Contain volatile compound like Formaldehyde, phenols, cresols. May contain Aldehyde, waxes, Ketones, Acetaldehyde, resins, Guaiacol, and its methyl and propyl isomers, Catechol, Methyl Catechol, and Pyrogallol and its methyl ester.

Ø More effective against vegetative cells than bacterial spores.

Ø Used mainly for meat.

Ø Liquid smoke similar in chemicals but has little preservative effect.

Limitation :

Contain carcinogenic chemicals like Benzopyrene and Dibenzanthracene so take little consumption of foods treated with smoke to reduce colon cancer.
It improve colour and have a tenderizing action on meats.

Limitations

Ø Toxicological data for natural antimicrobial are lacking and are as expensive to assemble as data for chemical compounds.

Ø With the exception of Nisin, Natamycin and Lysozyme, no isolated naturally occurring antimicrobial are approved for use in foods by regulatory agencies.

Ø Some of the chemicals used as preservatives are controversial in terms of the health risk involved and the benefits of extending the shelf life of the food.

Ø The antimicrobial activity range of most known bacteriocins is narrow and does not extend to the Gram negative bacteria.

Ø The amount of bacteriocin produced when a producing LAB is added to a food, is quite low due to insufficient growth of the LAB and absorption of the bacteriocin onto the food matrix.

Ø The genetic information allowing for bacteriocin production in some cases is not stable.

Trends in Future

Ø Vogler et al suggested a future preservatives that these consists of combinations of amino acids and fatty acids and are claimed to breakdown to their components which are readily digested in the usual way without any toxicity to the consumer.

Ø Attempts are being made to replace the controversial chemicals with new antimicrobials or combinations of safe chemicals.

Ø A proper study on the use of spices as antimicrobials agents will be helpful in avoiding or reducing the risk associated with the addition of chemical preservatives to foods.

Ø Current research trends in food microbiology and food technology focus on mild, physical preservative techniques and the use of natural antimicrobial compounds.

Conclusions

The naturally present antimicrobials and organic acids exhibit good inhibitory properties.

Sunday, 25 December 2011

Scope of low calorie food in India

There is much scope for making for Low calorie food as people are suffering from many diseases due to junk foods or soft drinks. Food Industries should take appropriate steps to create low calorie food or foods with higher fiber. Mostly, these foods are imported from other countries in bulk quantities. One such bakery industry is Tiffon which are manufacturing sugarless Biscuits which are popular among health conscious people. If any Indian bakery industry try to produce sugar free biscuits than cost of these products will be much low as compare to imported sugar fee biscuits. In India, none of Indian Bakery Company takes any serious steps or do research to manufacture sugar free biscuits or Cake at affordable price. As India is becoming capital of Obesity People but Indian food industries have never think about producing low calorie food in large scale. Other food drinks which are calorie free are Dlite Drinks which are available in many flavours like Lemon or Orange, Apple etc. The effort for manufacturing sugar free drinks by Dlite Brands is awesome and praising. But they do not advertise these drinks much on digital media or Paper Media. So, they are not popular among Indian people, as result, these drinks are not easily available in Indian markets. They are just available in big malls only. The efforts of PepsiCo brands are also good in manufacturing calorie drink like Pepsi Diets at affordable price. I suggest PepsiCo that they must lunch other flavour too with low calorie content eg Thumbup, Marinda. All of above, Efforts of Pitanjali Yogapeth is great in manufacturing herb foods which are highly nutritive and rich in fibers. I suggest Pitanjali Yogapeth to produce new foods which have taste of fast foods but contain Indian Herbs and Fiber too. They can produce Noodles or Pasta made of many cereals flours. As they are already producing biscuits, Dalia and flour made of many cereals. They can produce more food items which can be highly nutritional like ready to eat foods, fast food with herb nutrition and high fibers. I suggest Pitanjali Yogapeeth to manufacture biscuits rich in Indian Herbs. My other suggestion is that they can produce sugar free squash of Amala, Apple, or any Indian Herb drink for diabetic patient. They can manufacture Sauces rich in Indian herbs. Conclusion of this discussion is that there is much scope of low calorie foods and fibrous foods. A lot of research is required to produce such foods in large quantities but at affordable price. But unfortunately, in India, our higher education model is much traditional and old. In Indian universities, maximum studies is based on theoretical concepts and we do not take researches seriously in MSc or PhD levels as compare to America or European Universities. Mostly Indian student do research on old topics which was already documented by foreigner countries. All of this, Mostly Indian universities do not have much sophisticated scientific facility and equipments to do world class research work. Also, Indian government keeps much low budget for Research and Development too as compare to America or Europe.

Monday, 31 October 2011

Definitions of Food Related Terms

Adulteration :

The addition or contamination of a food by a substance foreign to the normal product, which debases it or disguises inferior quality.

Botulinum Cook :

The heat treatment given to a low acid canned food (having a pH higher than 4.2) sufficient to inactivate 1012 spores of Clostridium botulinum. This heat treatment is called the Fo value and it is equivalent to a process of 3 mins at 121 degC, 10 mins at 115 degC or 32 mins at 110 degC.

Biopolymer :

A compound consisting of repeating units of a single biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched, e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.

Biotechnology :

The application of biological science to the production, modification or processing of materials. It encompasses long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation technology for the production of some novel protein foods.

Boiled :

Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').

Chilled food :

Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature usually between 2 and 8 degC.

Chilled food chain :

The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.

Comercial Sterility :

A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e. those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth. 'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning industry meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat sufficient to render the processed product free from viable microorganisms (including those of known public health significance), capable of growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated temperatures at which the food is likely to be held during distribution and storage.

Controlled atmosphere packaging :

A procedure whereby residual air in a food pack is replaced by a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in order to minimise deteriorative changes on storage. An example is the packaging of peanuts in an atmosphere of nitrogen to inhibit rancidity.

Convenience food :

A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate) before consumption.

Cooked :

Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render the food suitable for consumption.

Critical control point :

Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may result in an unacceptable risk.

Crude fibre :

The structural component of the plant cell wall being the residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a food or food material.

Dairy :

When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to milk and milk products.

Dairy-free (Non-dairy) :

A description that may be applied to a food that is free from milk products and also from milk derivatives such as lactose, caseinate and whey powder.

Dehydrated (food) :

Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of the water has been removed under controlled conditions.

Designer food(s) :

See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.

Disinfection :

The application of effective chemical or physical agents or processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene practice.

Dietary fibre :

In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e. starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result of processing).

Emulsion :

A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.

Enriched :

See "fortified foods"

Fast Food :

This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered, counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being eaten without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on scheduling based on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a production system and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and sufficient counter servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods (e.g. burgers) have lent themselves more readily to this type of operation, the term has come to be applied to them too.

Fermentation :

The process of chemical change in animal or plant material, catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food spoilage.

Fermented (food) :

Food material having been subjected to fermentation

Fibre :

Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre"

Flavour/flavoured :

The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of a food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste. Alternatively, 'flavour' is as a material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food.

Food :

The Codex Alimentarius defines 'food' as "any substance, whether processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food, but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used as drugs".

Food hygiene :

All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or decomposition of food.

Fortified (food) :

Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched, and fortified foods, as described here:

a. Restore

The addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the level of those nutrients that were originally present, but have been destroyed or lost in processing.

b. Enrich

The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.

c. Fortify

The addition to a food of significant quantities of a nutrient that was not originally present in that food or was present only in nutritionally insignificant amount.

Fresh :

The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or microbiological change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed foods e.g. fresh eggs, fresh meat, showing that they are in their original state. It is also used in apparently contradictory terms, e.g. fresh pasteurised cream to distinguish it from more highly processed sterilised cream.

Functional :

Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.

Functional food(s) :

The term is to categories foods which are considered or claimed to offer specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be licensed medicines

Genetic modification :

The process of making changes to the genes of an organism (whether an animal or plant organism or a microorganism). Genetic changes occur spontaneously in nature over a long period of time, but they may be produced intentionally either by traditional methods of selective breeding of animals and plants, or by modern methods of removal or insertion of genes. The latter method involves four basic steps;

1. the DNA of a cell of the donor organism is broken down and the pieces separated;
2. the desired gene is selected;
3. that gene is copied many times; and
4. nth generation laboratory copies (not the donor's original genes) are then inserted into the DNA of the receiver organism.

'Within-species' genetic modification is essentially similar to traditional breeding methods (except that it is much speedier and much less haphazard). Through 'trans-species' modification, results are obtainable that could not be obtained by traditional breeding methods. In relation to food, the potential scientific benefits of genetic modification are:

1. Improved agricultural performance (yields) with reduced use of pesticides
2. Ability to grow crops in inhospitable environments (e.g. via increased ability of plants to grow in conditions of drought, salinity and extremes of temperature
3. Delayed ripening, permitting improvements in quality and processing advantages.
4. Altered sensory attributes of food (e.g. flavour, texture, etc.)
5. Improved nutritional attributes e.g. combatting anti-nutritive and allergenic factors, and increased Vitamin A content in rice.
6. Improved processing characteristics leading to reduced waste and lower food costs to the consumer.

Genuine :

'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla olives, genuine Italian olive oil).

GMP :

'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food control operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently manufactured to a specified quality appropriate to their intended use. It thus has two complementary and interacting components; the manufacturing operation itself and the control system and procedures.

HACCP :

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive system of food control. It involves

1. Hazard analysis - examining and analysing every stage of a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards (q.v., below);
2. determining the 'critical control points' (q.v., above) at which action is required to control the identified hazards;
3. establishing the critical limits that must be met at each critical control point;
4. establishing monitoring procedures;
5. establishing corrective procedures when a deviation is identified by monitoring;
6. establishing verification procedures to demostrate that it is working correctly.
7. Establishing record-keeping and documentation.

HAZOP :

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic structured approach to questioning the sequential stages of a proposed operation in order to optimise the efficiency and the management of risk. Thus, the application of HAZOP to the design of a proposed food-related operation, should result in a system in which as many critical control points as possible have been eliminated, making the subsequent application of HACCP during subsequent operations much easier to carry out.

Hazard :

Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.

Health food :

This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods not so described.

Hermetically sealed container :

Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is sealed so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may be packed in non-metallic containers that are not completely air-tight. In the latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container' has been defined as one that is designed and intended to be secure against entry of microorganisms.

Home made :

This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or premises not associated with large scale manufacture.

Improved :

Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction with 'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including minor cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes to make the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter case that most properly justifies the use of the term.

Instant :

This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders or mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds (e.g. instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such speedy action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been misused by applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster than some others but still take a few minutes rather than a few seconds.

Irradiated :

Having been subjected to ionising radiation.

Isotonic :

A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-osmoles per kg.

Junk Food :

This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label which has, for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast food and all snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high in fat and/or sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients.

Light/Lite :

These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat version of a particular food. That would imply at least 25% reduction of the norm, but some opinion holds that it should mean at least 50% reduction.

Low calorie/low energy :

A description which may be applied to foods which, when ready for consumption, have an energy value no greater than 167 kJ (40 kcal) per 100 g

Manufacture :

The complete cycle of production of a food product from the acquisition of all materials, through all stages of subsequent processing, packaging and storage, to the despatch of the finished product.

Meat :

'Meat' means the flesh, including fat and the skin, rind, gristle and sinew in amounts naturally associated with the flesh, of any animal or bird which is normally used for human consumption.

Natural :

(a) to describe single foods of a traditional nature to which nothing has been added and which have been subjected only to such processing as to render them suitable for human consumption.; (b) to describe food ingredients obtained from recognised food sources, and which meet the criteria in (a); (c) to describe flavouring substances or permitted food additives obtained from recognised food sources by appropriate physical processes or traditional food preparation processes.

Natural flavouring :

a 'natural' flavouring may be obtained from vegetable or animal material by enzymatic or microbiological methods as well as physical ones

Nature-Identical :

a term applied to flavouring substances or mixtures thereof that have been synthesised or isolated from aromatic raw materials but are chemically identical with substances found in natural products used for human consumption - in the US this is otherwise known as "Artificial flavor".

New :

Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction with 'improved', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, ranging from a minor formulation or packaging change from a previously marketed product.

Novel (food, process) :

Food or food ingredients produced from raw material that has not hitherto been used (or has been used only to a small extent) for human consumption in the area of the world, or that is produced by a new or extensively modified process not previously used in the production of food.

Nutraceutical :

See Functional food.

Organic :

Organic food can be defined as "the product of a farming system which avoids the use of man-made fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. Instead the system relies on crop rotation, animal and plant manures, some hand weeding and biological pest control".

Organic processed foods are labelled depending on the proportion of organic ingredients present:

* Category 1: Product contains a minimum of 95% organic ingredients by weight. Product can be labelled 'Organic' eg Organic Cornflakes
* Category 2: Product contains 70 - 95% organic ingredients by weight. Product can be labelled 'Made with
Organic Ingredients' eg Tomato Ketchup made with Organic Tomatoes.

Original :

This adjective may be justified in respect of a well established product, to distinguish it from subsequent variants marketed by the manufacturer.

Probiotic :

a live microbial preparation, either as a food or animal feed, which can benefit the host through restoring its intestinal microbial balance. The microorganisms most commonly involved as probiotics are the Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Streptococci and some yeasts and moulds. Probiotic preparations may have one or a mixture of organisms of various genera, species, sub-species or strains, and may take a variety of physical forms.

Processed :

Having been subjected to treatment designed to change one or more of the properties (physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory) of food.

Processing aid :

A processing aid is an additive which facilitates processing without significantly influencing the character or
properties of the finished product. Examples would be a tablet release agent used to coat the inside of tablet moulds, or a spray used to allow bread to be released from baking tins or trays. If an anti-caking agent is added to a powder ingredient to facilitate its flow properties while being conveyed to a mixer, where it is incorporated into a liquid product or a dough for baking, the anti-caking agent is used solely as a processing aid, and hence need not be declared. If however, that powder ingredient is directly packed into containers for sale as such, or is incorporated in a dry mix product, the anti-caking agent is not acting solely as a processing aid and must be declared as an additive.

Pure :

This word is used as a marketing term, and is usually applied to a single ingredient with no additions, e.g. pure vegetable oil, pure orange juice, whether in the form of a single ingredients food or when used as a major ingredient of a compound food.

Quality :

Quality may refer to (a) the degree or standard of excellence; or (b) the fitness for purpose; or (c) the consistency of attainment of the specified properties of the food. In the context of food control, it is meaning (c) that applies.

Raw

In the earliest or primary state, after harvesting or slaughter, not having been subjected to any treatment apart from cleaning, size grading or size reduction, (e.g. diced raw vegetables, raw minced beef).

Real :

A marketing term, used normally to emphasise the presence of an authentic ingredient in a product, as distinct from a substitute (e.g. biscuits with a real chocolate coating).

Re-formed :

'Re-formed' meat is an artefact having the appearance of a cut, joint, slice or portion of meat, formed by combining pieces of meat which have undergone processes generally including tumbling or massaging or specific alignment of fibres, with or without the addition of finely comminuted meat and/or meat emulsion, and then forming in moulds or into shapes.

Restore :

See Fortified (foods).

Risk :

The probability that a particular adverse consequence results from a hazard within a stated time under stated conditions. "Risk assessment" should take account of both the probability of occurrence and its seriousness if it occurs.

Risk Analysis :

This comprises risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Risk assessment requires expertise both in the product or process in which the risk has been identified, and in modern risk assessment techniques. While experts also have a responsibility to contribute to risk management. Consultation is part of the process of risk communication, which should take place both before and after risk management.

Selected :

Primarily a marketing term, implying superior quality. It should not be used unless it can be substantiated that the product quality has been enhanced by an actual selection process.

Sensory :

Relating to the use of the sense organs.

Snack :

A small quantity of food, eaten informally between, or in place of main meals.

Snackfood (Snack food) :

A convenient food item specifically manufactured for use as a snack.

Spoilage :

Any perceivable change undergone by a food, through any cause, that renders it unwholesome or unacceptable for use. Spoilage is usually the result of enzyme or microbial action resulting, for example, in lipolytic rancidity, putrefaction, fermentation, or mould growth; but food can also spoil by other means, for example overlong storage, non-enzymic browning, or exposure to air or light. In practice the term is most frequently applied to categorising such deteriorative changes (other than food infection or intoxication) when caused by microorganisms.

Steak :

Steak has been taken to mean a cut or thick slice from the beef animal.

Traditional :

One way of defining 'traditional' in relation to foods and food processes is to say it is the opposite of 'new' or 'modern'. It can also be applied to a particular characteristic of a food; for example 'traditional flavour', 'made in the traditional way'.

Unadulterated :

A food material containing no additions or contaminants foreign to the normal product which otherwise would debase it or confer or disguise inferior quality.

Wholefood :

Any food which contains all its naturally occurring components, (e.g. pulses, raw vegetables) and without the addition of other substances. A wholefood can be a mixture of wholefoods.

Wholesomeness :

'Wholesomeness' is a convenient single term which embodies a large number of aspects and attributes of a food. In summary, a wholesome food is one that satisfactorily meets the expectations of the segment of consumers at which it is aimed; and that has been made, stored and handled in compliance with any relevant legislative standards and with all of the principles of good manufacturing practice.

MARKETING TERMS :

When used in the labelling, advertising or description of a food, the main (and sometimes total) role of the terms listed under this heading is to promote the sale of the product rather than provide necessary information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food', 'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected', 'traditional'.